Traumatic Brain Injury and Alzheimers Disease - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2211 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/04/12 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Topics: Alzheimer's Disease Essay Did you like this example? Traumatic head injury increases effect of Alzheimer disease which disrupts activity of neurotransmitters and electrical charges travel within cells. Alzheimer disease is characterized by synaptic loss and neuronal death with gross brain atrophy. Falls are common in older population which lead to prolong hospital stay and serious medical complications such as traumatic brain injury. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Traumatic Brain Injury and Alzheimers Disease" essay for you Create order Traumatic head injury cause brain tissue to swell which prevent fluids from leaving brain and broken pieces of skull can rupture blood vessels in head. Effect of traumatic brain injury is crucial due to the association of cognitive impairment, decrease motor function, and neuroinflammation with Alzheimers disease, especially in women with the APOE genotype. Reducing the onset with preventative measures including diet modification, physical activities, and continuous intellectual stimulation constituting a medical management and care plan. Neuroinflammation and Cognitive Impairment Neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment role on the brain is critical to traumatic brain injury with Alzheimer disease. Brains immune cells play an important role in healing process, removal of dead, and damaged neurons which doesnt occur cause of the traumatic brain injury. Amnesia is memory loss and different types include retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia hinders ability to retrieve memories that were already stored in brain and limited to period before head injury or before Alzheimer disease develops. Anterograde amnesia lose capacity to make new memories and present for events that occur or information that is present after brain injury or Alzheimer disease. Aphasia is impaired communication and apraxia is deficit involuntary motor skills. Neuroinflammation is cellular damage and loss of neuronal functions occurring when brain or spinal cord become inflamed cause by irritation and swelling of brain tissue or blood vessels. Brain swelling cause increased intracranial pressure (ICP) which prevent blood flow to brain and deprived it of oxygen need to function. Brain fog occurs due to decrease communication between neurons leading to damaged brain cells and brain decelerating. Inflammation cause deficits such as memory loss, decrease alertness, change in concentration and behavior, confusion, mood swings, and distortions in thought. Chronic cerebral inflammation associated with increased proinflammatory cytokines capable of mediating neural protection and regeneration. Traumatic brain injury follows by oxidative stress and hypoxia which stimulate microglia and astrocytes. Continuing neuroinflammation and oxidative stress occur in existence of brain damage and functional impairments (OBrien, 2015). Cognitive impairment is act of knowing, thinking, ability to choose, understand, remember information. Problems include attention and concentration, speech and language, learning and memory, problem-solving, decision-making, and judgment. First, unable to pay attention and concentration resulting in restless, distraction, difficulty working on more than one task at a time, problem carrying on long conversation or sitting still for long period of time. Second, problem with processing and understanding information slow down and result in taking longer to grasp what other say, more time to understand and follow direction, trouble following tv, take longer to read and interpret written information, slow to reaction such as driving, slow to carry out physical task like getting dress or cooking. Third, language and communication problems include difficulty thinking of right words, trouble starting or following conversation, rambling, misunderstanding jokes, difficult with more complex lang uage, trouble communicating thoughts and feelings using facial expression, tone of voice and body language, reading others emotions. Fourth, problem learning and remember new information that occur recently but remember information from long time ago. Fifth, problem with problem-solving, decision-making, and judgment include difficult recognizing problem, trouble analyzing information, or change way of thinking, difficult deciding best solution, and quick decision without thinking about consequences. Sixth, inappropriate, embarrassing or impulsive behavior occur with lack of self-control and self-awareness including denying cognitive problems, say hurtful or insensitive things, act out of place and behave in inconsiderate way and lack awareness of social boundaries and others feeling. Adrenal cortex produces the hormone cortisol and shows a high level in people affective by mild cognitive impairment (Battino, 2016 APOE Genotype The sex difference varies by APOE genotype which regulate aggregation and clearance in brain, neuronal signaling, and neuroinflammation. Traumatic brain injury reduce ability to repair and remodel synapses or protect neurons with APOE gene. Patient carrying APOE gene have high tau level, low cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and great brain atrophy particularly in hippocampal area cause loss in cortical thinness and hippocampal value leading to decrease cognitive performance. APOE-  µ4 gene more common in Alzheimer disease patient associated with increased risk for cerebral amyloid. Amyloid-related decline with presence of APOE- ? µ4 by assessing memory, cognitive, and executive function in participants with Alzheimer pathology and no pathology. (Donohue, 2014) Amyloid-b (A) peptides becomes accumulate and aggression causing injury to synapse and neurodegeneration. Microtubule-associated protein tau appear as neurofibrillary tangles in Alzheimer disease brain caused by overproduction of A. Low level of gonadal sex hormones is associated with decline in neurogenesis with memory decline and executive function difficulties. Female sex-linked to decrease longitudinal cognitive, advance hippocampal atrophy, and lower cognitive testing. Women with APOE-  µ4 have more pronounced brain pathology than men showing more buildup of sticky plaques called amyloid beta protein. APOE-  µ4 in women cause worse performance, greater brain atrophy and lower brain metabolism due to higher level of biological markers. Women with low CSF have greater left hippocampal atrophy, quicker decline in memory, and function performance while women with higher CSF have decrease in function performance and advance right hippocampal atrophy (Koran, 2016). Estrogen important for hippocampal memory consolidation, hippocampal-dependent spatial navigation memory, object recognition, and object placement which decrease with age and associated with cognitive decline. Preventive Measure Diet modification, physical activities, intellectual stimulation to help decrease cognitive impairment, neuroinflammation, and increase motor function. Research has showed that wearing a seat belt while in an automobile can reduce injury from occurring during accidents. Secure rugs and loose electrical cord to minimize risk of tripping over them which could lead to falls. Brain cells critical for memory is lose as brain shrink with age, and large brain volume association include diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, dairy, nuts, fish, and low in sugary beverage. Diet modification include nutrition which is an environmental factor, and proper nutrition can change biomarker level. Decrease oxidation in the brain cause decrease deacetylase activity (Athanasopoulos, 2016). Vitamin D has neuroprotector properties such as antioxidative, calcium homeostasis, neurotrophic regulation and anti-inflammatory action which regulate DNA methylation and modulate gene expression leading to decrease risk for developing Alzheimer disease. Vitamins A, C, and E has antioxidant properties which can reduce abnormal histone acetylation modification. Vitamin A group include retinol, retinoic acid, and b-carotene which have beneficial effect on memory. Vitamin C group require for recycling ? ±-tocopherol radical which acts as a reducing agent and induces epigenetic changes to protect against Alzheimer disease. Vitamin E group include tocopherols and tocotrienols associated with decreased risk for Alzheimer disease. Omega-3 fatty acids reduce cognitive decline in ol der adults by increasing the specialized pro-resolving mediators produce by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Omega-3 fatty acids benefit heart and blood vessels, anti-inflammatory effects, and protect nerve cell membranes. Inflammation and cognitive decline can be physical reduced with alpha-lipoic acid, curcumin, fish oil, ginger, resveratrol, and spirulina. Physical activities help brain cells increase blood and oxygen flow in brain encouraging new cell growth which stimulate brains ability to maintain old connection as well as make new ones. Muscle, joints, balance, and heart help maintain higher level of functioning and reducing risk of falls. Adequate exercise reduces restlessness and prevent wandering and cognitive decline improve with supporting cardiac function. Improve sleeping habits by maintaining a good sleep-wake cycle and facilitate sound sleep at night. Walking shows improvement with memory and weight training show improvement in selective attention, memory, and conflict resolution. Yoga decrease blood pressure and decrease risk of cardiovascular which improve brain function and decrease risk of Alzheimer disease. Overall quality of life improves with yoga with increase processing speed, executive function, attention, memory, and mood. Stimulating Activities Certain stimulating activities can reduce risk of mild cognitive impairment and show improvement in complex thinking and memory skills by staying engage and alert while enjoying vigorous memory workout. People with APOE ? µ4 genotype engage in intellectual activities show reduced risk of mild cognitive impairment and higher cognitive reserve is associated with cerebrospinal biomarker. Reduce risk of mild cognitive impairment by playing brain games, reading, using computer, and social activities. Puzzles or sorting object use hand-eye coordination to exercise problem-solving ability and make sense of shapes to complete pictures which help maintain neural connection of brain. Game encouraging verbal articulation of ideas strengthen mental capacity through word related activities, mental exercises, or question by stimulating mind to sharpen cognitive awareness. Reading stimulate both memories and emotion and more neurobiological demanding require vision, language, and associate learni ng all connection. Tackling new technologies is a way to learn new things. Remain interested, active and engage in life by staying social will keep brain active. Learn something new to challenge mind and stimulate brain stem growth such as new language, musical instrument, and painting which provide novelty, complexity, and challenge by disrupting brains habit and routines. Artistic hobbies such as drawing, and paint keeps senses fine-tuned by work part of the brain that might not have been utilized in past. Music stimulates specific part of the brain and has power to stir memories and elicit emotion. Practice memorization by creating rhymes and patterns to strength memory connection. Practice the 5 Ws. Who, What, Where, When, and Why by observing and reporting to capture visual details to keep neurons firing. Things already know how to do, try in new ways to create new brain pathways such as eating or styling hair with non-dominant hand and placing watch on opposite wrist. Medical Management and Care Plan Medical management and care plan help communicate and organize action needed for individuals needs. Neurological examination includes blood test, spinal tap, nerve function, electroencephalogram (EEG), and imaging test CT scan and MRI. Cognitive evaluated by neuropsychologist since many factors affect how cognitive can be improve and challenging to predict recovery. Cognitive rehabilitation focus on remediation focus on improving skills that have been lost or impaired and compensate learning new ways to achieve goal. Speech therapist to identify areas that need work Treatment Medication cant stop the damage Alzheimer disease cause brain cell but can lessen or stabilize symptoms by affecting certain chemicals involving with brain nerve cells. Neuroinflammation treatment include controlling inflammation with immunosuppressant. Cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine to treat cognitive symptoms such as confusion, problem with thinking and reasoning, and memory loss. Cholinesterase inhibitors prevent breakdown of chemical called acetylcholine essential for learning, memory, and support communication among nerve cells by increasing acetylcholine. Memantine regulates activity of a chemical called glutamate improved mental function and ability to perform daily activities. Oxygen therapy provide oxygen to help blood have enough oxygen and reduce amount of swelling. PROG treatment shows improved long-term cognitive and motor outcome with decrease brain damage (OBrien, 2015). MW 151 treatment Selective proinflammatory cytokine prevent cognitive impairment (Bachstet ter, 2015). Cognitive rehabilitation focuses on remediation by developing skills that have been lost or impaired and compensate for learning new ways to achieve goal. Ventriculostomy by drilling small hole in skull to drain cerebrospinal fluid from inside brain. Surgery to remove part of skull to relieve intracranial pressure or repair damaged artery or vein. Care Plan Cognition-focused evaluation is a comprehensive and interview with family member to obtain description of current issue, accurate patient history, exams, medication, and medical. Functional assessment includes activities of daily living, decision-making capacity, evaluation of safety and advances care planning with palliative care. Reminiscing will help with long-term memories and intellectual activities to keep cognitive skills active. Early detection can assist with more time to prepare for future, better chance of treatment such as increased chance of participating in clinical drug trials, participate in decision about care, transportation, living option, financial, and legal matters. Evaluation of safety and advance care planning with palliative care. Plans to help improve different changes that are occurring in mind and body. Attention and concentration problems improved by decreasing distraction, focus on one task at a time, practice attention skills, and take breaks when tired. Problem with processing and understanding improved with placing full attention on trying to understand, more time to think about information, re-read information, and ask to repeat themselves. Language and communication improved with using gentle tone of voice, dont speak quickly, limit conversation to one person at a time. Problems learning and remembering new information improved by putting together a structured routine of daily task and activities, be organized, review and practice new information, well rested and reduce anxiety, learn memory aids such as memory notebooks, calendars, daily schedules, and daily task list. Problem with problem-solving, decision-making, and judgment include teaching organized approach such as step-by-step problem-solving strategy, define problems, possible solution, pros and cons of solutions, pick solution, and evaluate success of solution. Inappropriate, embarrassing or impulsive behavior include think ahead about situation, clear expectation for desirable behavior, plan and rehearse social interaction, verbal and non-verbal cues. Conclusion Alzheimer disease is a complex neurodegenerative disorder which progressive due to traumatic brain injury. Effect of traumatic brain injury can be reduced by understanding neuroinflammation, cognitive impairment, APOE genotype, and sex hormones. Diet modification. Physical activities improve blood flow to brain and stimulate nerve cells growth. Ongoing intellectual stimulation improves complex thinking, memory, communication, and interaction.

Video Games And Hostility. Essay - 2108 Words

Running Head: VIDEO GAMES AND HOSTILITY Video games and hostility Surpreet Singh City University of New York : Queens College Authors Note Surpreet Singh, Department of Psychology, Queens College Contact : Surpreet95@gmail.com VIDEO GAMES AND HOSTILITY Abstract This experiment assessed the role of videogames and hostility in young Queens College students. This experiment was based on whether video games make a person hostile towards his or her surroundings. Showing two different clips from different video games, which described the mood of young students, did it. The experiment was tested within a classroom in Queens College. The experiment was divided into two different conditions, condition one, which was hostile games, and condition two, which was non- hostile games. First, the students were shown the clip of this aggressive video game called, Call of Duty 3 for two minutes and were asked to imagine as if they were playing. Students were administered the State Hostility Questionnaire and instructed to fill out ratings before and after the experiment. Secondly, the students were shown the clip of a nonviolent video game called Pikmin and were asked to do the same as they did with the first video game. The goal of this experiment was to b riefly find out if video games made a person hostile. Since, video games like Call of Duty 3 contains a lot of violent actions it does make students hostile compared to the non-violent games likeShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Violent Video Games Essay1712 Words   |  7 Pagesteeneagers love video games. Though some say â€Å"it’s just a game†, that simple game could be more of an impact than people think. At the moment teenagers may not see any change in their actions and emotions while playing video games. Violent video games in specific are a huge impact on Americans teenagers. 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Interpreting the Perfect Electoral System Free Essays

There is no such thing as a perfect electoral system’ The Idea of perfection Is Interpreted differently amongst everybody In the 0K. The word ‘Perfect’ Is defined as having all the necessary or typical characteristics required for a given situation. So everybody will have different thoughts on what really Is a perfect electoral system. We will write a custom essay sample on Interpreting the Perfect Electoral System or any similar topic only for you Order Now Generally, a perfect electoral system is one which has the qualities of being simple, gives a varied choice to the electorate, is fair and proportional, gives a clear outcome and is microcosmic, it represents the people more. Firstly, it could be argued that the more proportional electoral systems are the losest to a ‘perfect’ electoral system because they show what/who the people of the UK really voted for. One proportional system is the Single Transferrable Vote. This system operates by representatives being elected in large multi-member constituencies, the voting is preferential and also known as Voting Ordinal’ where the voters can vote as many times as they want. The candidates much receive a quota known as a droop quota to actually become elected and if they reach this quota any excess votes are redistributed on the basis ot 2nd preferences. The calculation used to work out the quota Is (total valid which some eople argue Is too complicated for any elecuons In the 0K, If no candidate reaches the quota then the lowest places candidate Is eliminated and the second preferences of the people that voted for them are redistributed. This system Is used successfully in many UK elections, It’s used In Northern Ireland for elections such as in the Assembly, for local government elections and EU parliament elections. The Republic of Ireland and Scotland both use it for Local Elections However there are both many advantages and disadvantages of using this electoral system. Firstly it delivers roportional outcomes and it also ensures that votes are largely of equal values. In addition, the threshold is quite high. A party or group of parties have to win over 50% of the popular vote to form a government, this is an advantage because the winning party reflects the majority of the populations wishes. On the other hand, the process Single Transferrable vote uses large multi-member constituencies, this weakens the link between individual MPs and their constituencies, so some people may not feel as involved as they could be throughout the electoral process. Also, STV is less accurate In translating votes Into seats than other electoral systems such as list systems or some versions of additional member systems. In addition, If a coalition was to be formed under the STV electoral system, It can be argued that the government produced could be unstable and give a disproportional Influence to minor parties that hold the balance of power. Never the less, the voters can choose between a large range of candidates including dfferent candidates of the same party, this allows the public to really vote what they feel most strongly for because of the large range of available candidates. Secondly, the electoral system Regional List is another proportional system. Again using this system, representatives are elected in large multi-member constituencies, however the political parties draw up a list of candidates in order in which they’ll be elected, the electors cast one single vote for a representing the same political party. The parties have greater control over the electoral process as they can put their favourite candidates at the top of the list. As it is a proportional system, the seats are allocated according to the proportion of votes won by each political party. Regional list is another successful system which is used for elections to European Parliament in England, Scotland and Wales, the last European election was in 2009 where the amount of seats won were 72, the overall turnout was 1 5,625,823 and the electorate was 45,315,669. However, although it is a proportional system it still has its advantages and disadvantages. It is argued that we shouldn’t use this system because in closed list systems voters cannot chose between candidates from the same party. Also the parties control the order in which candidates appear on the list and they can favour those who support the leadership. Never the less, Regional List delivers an extremely high degree of proportionality which is an argument for the I-JK using this system for more elections, because the amount of seats the winners of the election gain is proportional to the amount of people who voted for them which is fair isn’t it? In addition, not only does it reflect the voters’ choices, political parties use lists to increase the number of women and ethnic minority candidates in parliament. However, Just like the Single Transferrable Vote, Regional List uses large multi-member constituencies which weakens the links etween representatives and constituents. Thirdly, it could be argued that Majoritarian/plurality systems are the next closest to being a perfect electoral system as they are very simple and produce a stable government. First Past the Post electoral system is the most common Majoritarian system as it is used for the General Elections in the I-JK. First Past the Post is simple because the country is split into roughly even sized constituencies and in each constituency, people elect one representative, it is a single vote system and whoever wins the most votes in the constituency wins a seat in parliament. This system was last used in 2010 at the last general election where it lead to a hung parliament and the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats went into a coalition to run the country. The Conservatives gained 307 seats, Labour won 258 seats and the Liberal Democrats won 57 seats. Never the less, it may seem straight forward and simple but it has a variety of advantages and disadvantages. The fact it’s simple is one of the advantages, not only is it simple to understand but the ballot paper is simple as you can only cast one vote. Also, it produces a quick and clear vote and it also produces a stable government as the inning party adds a bonus of seats and single party governments with a working majority have significant control over the legislative process, both of these factors contributing to the creation of a stable government. However, despite these advantages the First Past the Post system produces disproportional outcomes, this is where the amount of seats won in the election doesn’t reflect the share of votes received. Also, it favours plurality rather than majority support, so the victorious candidates don’t need a majority to gain power. Not only this, but First Past the Post roduces votes of unequal value, the constituencies are roughly the same size, they’re not exactly the same size which means different constituencies have votes of different values, also most votes are wasted due to tactical voting so these votes don’t even help elect the MPs. Never the less, First Past the Post produces a responsible governing party in office at the moment, and the potential alternative government. This system also produces effective representation, as the country is split into single- member constituencies, it shows a clear link between voters and the elected representative. There is only one MP responsible. On the other hand, First Past the Post only offers a limited choice to the voters. Only one candidate stands on behalf of the party, so the choice isn’t as diverse as the more proportional systems like Regional List. To follow on from that point, many I-JK constituencies are known as ‘Safe Seats’ where the majority of people from that constituency will vote for a certain party whether they like their politics or not. For example, the constituency of Penrith is known as a safe seat for Conservatives. In addition, tactical voting is often used as way to obstruct a party to get into power, by voting for the party which is most likely to compete with the winning party and not by voting for their most preferred party. Fourthly, Supplementary vote is another form of a Majoritarian/plurality system. The voter only has one vote to put down their top two candidates and if no candidate wins a majority then all but the top two are eliminated and the second preference votes of the eliminated candidates are added to the first preference candidates. After the elimination the candidate with the highest total is elected. This system is a ariant of the Alternative Vote. The Supplementary Vote system is used to elect the London Mayor and Mayors of other cities. The last election was in 2012 which was the London Mayoral election. Boris Johnson (conservative) won a second term in power by 3% beating his Labour Rival Ken Livingston. How to cite Interpreting the Perfect Electoral System, Papers